Integrated Analysis of Multi-Parameter Precursors to the Fukushima Offshore Earthquake (Mj = 7.3) on 13 February 2021 and Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Channels

The preparation phase of earthquakes (EQs) has been investigated by making full use of multi-parameter and multi-layer observations of EQ precursors, in order to better understand the lithosphere–atmosphere–ionosphere coupling (LAIC) process. For this purpose, we chose a specific target EQ, the huge EQ of Fukushima-ken-oki EQ on 13 February 2021 (magnitude Mj = 7.3). We initially reported on EQ precursors in different physical parameters not only of the lithosphere, but also of the atmosphere and ionosphere (Hayakawa et al. followed by Akhoondzadeh et al. and Draz et al., both based on satellite observations). Our first two papers dealt with seven electromagnetic precursors in the three layers (with emphasis on our own ground-based observations in the atmosphere and lower ionosphere), while the second paper dealt with Swarm satellite observations of magnetic field, electron density, and GPS TEC in the ionosphere, and the third paper dealt only with climatological parameters on and above the Earth’s surface (together with GPS TEC). We have extensively reviewed all of these results, and have coordinated the temporal evolutions of various physical parameters relevant to the LAIC system; we have sought to understand which hypothesis is more plausible in explaining the LAIC process. Then, we came to a conclusion that two possible LAIC channels seem to exist simultaneously for this EQ: a fast channel (nearly simultaneous responses on the ground and ionosphere), and a slow channel (or diffusion-type), with a time delay of a few to several days, in which the agent effects in the lithosphere and lowest atmosphere seem to propagate up to the ionosphere with a definite time delay. Finally, we have suggested some research directions for the future elucidation of LAIC channels, and also made some comments on an early EQ warning system.