Developing high metabolic clothing for women through user-centred design

Clothing has been shown to increase a wearer's metabolism by restricting movement (Dorman and Havenith, 2007); however, current studies focus on the unintentional metabolic effects of clothing for the purpose of work efficiency and safety (Adams et al., 1995). Relatively little has been done to explore what benefits clothing might provide by increasing a wearer's metabolism. Although there are clothing and accessory products on the market that claim to aid weight loss, fat loss is only achieved by creating a calorie deficit i.e., when more energy is expended than consumed (Hill et al., 2013). The ability for everyday clothing to impose additional force requirements on a wearer to increase energy expenditure and aid weight management has not been well established. Thus, the aim of this research was to develop clothing that is designed to intentionally challenge a wearer's everyday movement for metabolic benefits, which we have termed, High Metabolic Clothing (HMC). Since women are genetically less metabolically active than men (Wu and O'Sullivan, 2011), this research focussed on women as end-users of HMC. A literature review comprised of four overarching topics including: metabolism and the energy balance, physical inactivity in the contemporary environment, metabolic activity and clothing, and involving users in the process of clothing design. A theoretical framework combining the user-centred design (UCD) process, the functional, expressive and aesthetic (FEA) consumer needs model, and the lead user concept, was used to guide the research process. The development of HMC was approached as an ongoing, iterative process whereby each study built on the previous one; three separate studies were conducted to achieve five research objectives. The research looked at differential results based on BMI and exercise engagement, to determine how these characteristics influenced women's perception and physiological response to HMC. Study 1 conducted an exploratory inquiry into women's perceptions of HMC. A two-part, mixed methods study was conducted combining an online survey (n=502) and interviews (n=30). Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and qualitative data were analyzed using thematic and content analysis guided by the FEA consumer needs model. FEA design criteria were generated and informed the first HMC prototype that was designed to resist lower limb movement. Study 2 was a three-part study design combining field wear trials, focus group discussions and co-design activities. The study was designed to subjectively evaluate the first HMC prototype and to test its feasibility against everyday activities and exercise activities. Two sample subsets of lead users were involved including exercisers and non-exercisers (n=12). In the field wear trials, subjective ratings of perceived exertion, resistance acceptability and an overall HMC evaluation were collected and statistically analyzed. Qualitative feedback including comments on the garments themselves were collected during follow up focus groups and were analyzed using a template and content analysis guided by the FEA consumer needs model. Updated FEA design criteria were used to guide the co-design activities to generate two improved HMC prototype designs. In Study 3, laboratory wear trials were conducted to investigate the effect of HMC prototypes on women's metabolism and range of motion. The proof-of-concept study tested two HMC prototypes with participants (n=10) using objective and subjective evaluations; statistical analysis was performed on all quantitative data. The results of this research evidenced that HMC can significantly increase the metabolic cost of daily activity by up to 22.4% above a control condition whilst being perceived as comfortable, desirable and socially acceptable to wear. Several future directions were identified for HMC to be a pathway to a more active lifestyle: (1) to extend the metabolic benefits of the limited activity achieved during the average working day, (2) to encourage exercise activity, and (3) to enhance the benefits of exercise activity. This research opens opportunities for HMC as a novel, clothing intervention to improve the health of individuals by assisting weight management, muscle maintenance or gain, and overall performance benefits. Together, the theoretical approach and results of this research provide contributions to industry and academia alike that can be used to make measurable progress on HMC for a range of women.