Medici 'cross roads' : the intersection of warfare and politics in the Tyrrhenian Sea and Duke Cosimo I's path towards the Order of Santo Stefano (1544-1563)

Recent scholarship has emphasized the socio-economic aspects of the Medici crusading Order of Santo Stefano - especially regarding its establishment and early history (c. 1562-1621). Additionally, focus is almost always drawn to Santo Stefano's famous corsair voyages in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries - or the artwork and other cultural aspects related thereto. Yet, Cosimo I de Medici's overwhelming and intricate experiences during the Habsburg-Valois Italian Wars (1494-1559) and the subsequent campaigns in North Africa also directly influenced his plans to establish a military religious order. On the rare occasions that they have been discussed by historians, the first two decades of the Medici galley squadron and coastal fortresses (c. 1544-1563) are examined in their own right and completely separated from Santo Stefano and vice versa. The political and military triangle of Cosimo, his Habsburg 'allies,' and threats by his enemies - the Valois, Ottomans, and Barbary corsairs - during the Italian Wars was not only the impetuous towards an expanded naval infrastructure but was important in shaping the emergence of the order. Moreover, Cosimo's Levantine 'crusades' pre-date the order by at least three years. These 'voyages against the infidel' undoubtedly impacted and further shaped Cosimo's strategies towards increasing his maritime presence and founding a military religious order. While connecting Santo Stefano to these rarely-mentioned and arguably neglected events, this thesis sheds light on the intricate tapestry of warfare, politics, and crusading in the early modern Mediterranean as it pertained Cosimo I, duke of Florence and eventually Siena. The Habsburg-Valois conflict's naval and amphibious aspects; the ambitious projects and struggles related to building a Tuscan naval infrastructure and Medici sovereignty; 'crusading' and religious warfare; and Cosimo's political interactions with the Habsburgs, the Valois, and other powers ultimately contributed towards his decision to found the Order of Santo Stefano in 1562.