On the suppression of giant planet formation around low-mass stars in clustered environments

Context: Current exoplanet formation studies tend to overlook the birth environment of stars in clustered environments. The effect of this environment on the planet-formation process, however, is important, especially in the earliest stage. Aims: We investigate the differences in planet populations forming in star-cluster environments through pebble accretion and compare these results with the planet formation around isolated stars. We try to provide potential signatures on the young planetary systems to guide future observation. Methods: We design and present a new planet population synthesis code for clustered environments. The planet formation model is based on pebble accretion and includes migration in the circumstellar disk. The disk's gas and dust are evolved in 1D simulations considering the effects of photo-evaporation of the nearby stars. Results: Planetary systems in a clustered environment are different than those born in isolation; the environmental effects are important for a wide range of observable parameters and the eventual architecture of the planetary systems. Planetary systems born in a clustered environment lack cold Jupiters compared to isolated planetary systems. This effect is more pronounced for low-mass stars ($\lesssim$0.2 $M_\odot$). On the other hand, planetary systems born in clusters show an excess of cold Neptune around these low-mass stars. Conclusions: In future observations, finding an excess of cold Neptunes and a lack of cold Jupiters could be used to constrain the birth environments of these planetary systems. Exploring the dependence of cold Jupiter's intrinsic occurrence rate on stellar mass provides insights into the birth environment of their proto-embryos.
Comment: 13 pages 10 figures. Accepted for publication in A&A