Heart rate and its reduction in chronic heart failure and beyond

Heart rate (HR) is associated with cardiovascular outcomes in all the stages of the cardiovascular continuum as well as in patients with pulmonary, cerebrovascular, and renal disease, sepsis, cancer, and erectile dysfunction. In patients with cardiovascular disease, but also in the general population, increased HR represents an important indicator of mortality with each acceleration of HR over 70 b.p.m. increasing the risk. In patients in sinus rhythm with chronic heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), a HR70 b.p.m. increased the risk of hospitalization, and75 b.p.m. the risk of cardiovascular death as shown in the Systolic Heart Failure Treatment with the I