Live and inactivated influenza vaccines induce similar humoral responses, but only live vaccines induce diverse T-cell responses in young children

Background. Two doses of either trivalent live attenuated or inactivated influenza vaccines (LAIV and TIV, respectively) are approved for young children ($24 months old for LAIV and $6 months old for TIV) and induce protective antibody responses. However, whether combinations of LAIV and TIV are safe and equally immunogenic is unknown. Furthermore, LAIV is more protective than TIV in children for unclear reasons. Methods. Children 6‐35 months old were administered, 1 month apart, 2 doses of either TIV or LAIV, or combinations of LAIV and TIV in both prime/boost sequences. Influenza-specific antibodies were measured by hemagglutination inhibition (HAI), and T cells were studied in flow cytometric and functional assays. Highly conserved M1, M2, and NP peptides predicted to be presented by common HLA class I and II were used to stimulate interferon-c enzyme-linked immunospot responses. Results. All LAIV and/or TIV combinations were well tolerated and induced similar HAI responses. In contrast, only regimens containing LAIV induced influenza-specific CD4 1 , CD8 1 , and cdT cells, including T cells specific for highly conserved influenza peptides. Conclusions. Prime/boost combinations of LAIV and TIV in young children were safe and induced similar protective antibodies. Only LAIV induced CD4 1 ,C D8 1 ,a ndcd T cells relevant for broadly protective heterosubtypic immunity.