Sex Differences in Peritraumatic Inflammatory Cytokines and Steroid Hormones Contribute to Prospective Risk for Nonremitting Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Women are at higher risk for developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) compared to men, yet little is known about the biological contributors to this sex difference. One possible mechanism is differential immunological and neuroendocrine responses to traumatic stress exposure. In the current prospective study, we aimed to identify whether sex is indirectly associated with the probability of developing nonremitting PTSD through pro-inflammatory markers and whether steroid hormone concentrations influence this effect. Female ( n = 179) and male ( n = 197) trauma survivors were recruited from an emergency department and completed clinical assessment within 24 h and blood samples within ∼three hours of trauma exposure. Pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1[Formula: see text], TNF, IFNγ), and steroid hormone (estradiol, testosterone, progesterone, cortisol) concentrations were quantified in plasma. Compared to men, women had a higher probability of developing nonremitting PTSD after trauma ( p = 0.04), had lower pro-inflammatory cytokines and testosterone ( p’ s