Differential Extracellular and Intracellular Concentrations of Zidovudine and Lamivudine in Semen and Plasma of HIV-1-Infected Men

Unprotected sexual intercourse is the predominant risk factor for acquiring HIV, with most transmission occur- ring from infected men to male and female partners.1 The efficiency of HIV transmission depends on a variety of factors, including the type of sex act, the viral burden of the infected partner, and the susceptibility of the uninfected partner to HIV infection.2–7 Although behavioral interventions, such as condom use, have been successful in reducing transmission,8–10 approximately 4 million adults and children are infected globally on a yearly basis.1 New and novel prevention methods are urgently needed to slow the spread of the epidemic. One potential mechanism to slow HIV transmission is the use of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) to reduce HIV RNA concentrations in infectious secretions. ARV therapy has been shown reliably to decrease HIV RNA concentrations in the genital tract (GT),11–14 and lower semen HIV RNA concentrations are expected to decrease the efficiency of sexual transmission. Chakraborty and colleagues4 predict that a semen HIV RNA concentration of 100,000 copies/mL would result in transmission in 1 per 100 episodes of heterosexual intercourse, whereas a seminal viral load of 1000 copies/mL would decrease the probability of transmission to 3 per 10,000 acts. The relation between HIV RNA concentrations in blood plasma (BP) and semen is imperfect,15–18 and careful examination of viral sequences demonstrates that BP and GT can be viewed as separate viral compartments.19–21 Persistent GT HIV RNA shedding in subjects receiving ARVs has been reported,22 and long-lived resistant variants in the GT represent a particular problem for rebound viremia23 and transmitted resistance.19 It seems likely that poor penetration or altered metabolism of ARVs in the GT contribute to this problem.24 Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) such as lamivudine (3TC) and zidovudine (ZDV) form the backbone of a typical ARV regimen, and this combination is currently recommended as an alternative option for initial treatment of HIV infection by the US Department of Health and Human Services.25 Random BP and seminal plasma (SP) concentrations of these drugs have been measured previously,14,26,27 and investigators have noted ZDV and 3TC concentrations to be 2 to 9 times higher in SP than in BP. As with all NRTIs, however, the active moiety is the triphosphate (TP) metabolite formed by intracellular enzymatic processes.28 Higher intracellular 3TC-TP and ZDV-TP concentrations in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) have been correlated with a faster decline in HIV RNA concentrations and an increase in CD4 T-cell counts.29 TP concentrations have not been previously characterized in GT mononuclear cells but are likely critical for NRTI efficacy locally. Here, we report on a comprehensive evaluation of extracellular and intracellular ZDV and 3TC concentrations in the male GT over a 12-hour dosing interval under steady-state conditions.