Effects of Reformulated Gasoline and Motor Vehicle Fleet Turnover on Emissions and Ambient Concentrations of Benzene

Gasoline-powered motor vehicles are a major source of toxic air contaminants such as benzene. Emissions from light-duty vehicles were measured in a San Francisco area highway tunnel during summers 1991, 1994-1997, 1999, 2001, and 2004. Benzene emission rates decreased over this time period, with a large (54 +/- 5%) decrease observed between 1995 and 1996 when California phase 2 reformulated gasoline (RFG) was introduced. We attribute this one-year change in benzene mainly to RFG effects: 36% from lower aromatics in gasoline that led to a lower benzene mass fraction in vehicle emissions, 14% due to RFG effects on total nonmethane organic compound mass emissions, and the remaining 4% due to fleet turnover. Fleet turnover effects accumulate over longer time periods: between 1995 and 2004, fleet turnover led to a 32% reduction in the benzene emission rate. A approximately 4 microg m(-3) decrease in benzene concentrations was observed at a network of ambient air sampling sites in the San Francisco Bay area between the late 1980s and 2004. The largest decrease in annual average ambient benzene concentrations (1.5 +/- 0.7 microg m(-3) or 42 +/- 19%) was observed between 1995 and 1996. The reduction in ambient benzene between spring/summer months of 1995 and 1996 due to phase 2 RFG was larger (60 +/- 20%). Effects of fuel changes on benzene during fall/winter months are difficult to quantify because some wintertime fuel changes had already occurred prior to 1995.