Sulfur valence-to-core X-ray emission spectroscopy study of lithium sulfur batteries

In this work, valence-to-core (VtC) Kβsulfur X-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) was used to perform quantitative analysis of different sulfur compounds produced in a lithium sulfur (Li–S) battery during discharge. The analysis is based on the theoretical sulfur KβXES spectra obtained from ab initio quantum chemical calculations based on density functional theory. The emphasis is given to the Kβsulfur XES spectra of the polysulfide molecules (Li2Sx, x = 2,…,8) produced electrochemically within the Li–S battery. Ab initio molecular dynamics calculations are used further to calculate also the Kβspectra of Li2Sx dissolved in a model solvent. Calculated spectra were directly compared with the experimental ones collected with a Johansson type tender XES spectrometer on laboratory synthesized Li2Sx reference standards and pre-cycled battery cathodes. These results demonstrate that sulfur VtC XES can be used effectively to quantitatively analyze electrochemical sulfur conversion, also in a smaller laboratory without the need for large scale synchrotron facilities.