The general psychopathology factor from early to middle childhood: Longitudinal genetic and risk analyses

Accumulating research suggests the structure of psychopathology is best represented by continuous higher-order dimensions, including a general dimension, p-factor, and more specific dimensions, e.g., residualized externalizing and internalizing factors. Here, we aimed to 1) replicate p in early childhood; 2) externally validate the factors with key constructs of psychological functioning; 3) examine stability and change of genetic and environmental influences on the psychopathology factors from early-to mid-childhood; 4) examine the factors’ predictive utility; and 5) test whether the factors can be predicted by early life measures (e.g., neonatal complications). The Longitudinal Israeli Study of Twins from age 3 to 9 was used for the analyses. Mothers reported on developmental problems, pregnancy and neonatal conditions, and filled in questionnaires on each twin’s externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Cognitive ability was assessed in the lab at age 6.5 and personality traits, self-esteem, and life satisfaction were self-reported by the twins at ages 11-13. A bifactor model that included p and externalizing and internalizing factors fit the data best and associations between p, cognitive ability, and personality were replicated. Longitudinal twin analyses indicated that p is highly heritable (64-73%) with a substantial proportion of the genetic influences stable from age 3. The residualized internalizing and externalizing factors were also highly heritable. Higher p predicted developmental problems at age 8-9 and lower self-esteem at age 11. Early life measures were not strongly associated with psychopathology. Our results show that p is discernible in early childhood, highly heritable, and prospectively associated with negative outcomes.General Scientific SummaryThe general psychopathology factor is discernible in early childhood, highly heritable, with genetic influences contributing to both stability and change, and prospectively associated with developmental problems and lower self-esteem. Early life measures, such as birth complications or hospitalizations during the first year of life, were not strong predictors of the general psychopathology factor or the residualized externalizing and internalizing factors.