Paraptosis and Photodynamic Therapy: A Progress Report

Photodamage to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) can initiate a death pathway termed paraptosis. The "canonical" model of paraptosis, initiated by certain drugs and other stimuli, requires a brief interval of protein synthesis, involves the action of MAP kinases and can be followed by biochemical markers. The latter include changes in expression of AIP-1/Alix and IGF-1R proteins and translocation of HMGB-1 from nucleus to plasma membrane. There is also a report indicating that an enhanced level of autophagy can impair death by paraptosis. The pathway to paraptosis follows the canonical pathway when ER photodamage is minor (