A neural network prediction of environmental determinants of Anopheles sinensis knockdown resistance mutation to pyrethroids in China

Selection pressure caused by long-term intensive use of insecticides is the key driving force in resistance development. Additional parameters such as environmental conditions may affect both the mosquito response to insecticides and the selection of resistance mechanisms. In this context, we analyzed the environmental determinants of kdr prevalence in Anopheles sinensis across China. We collected kdr frequency from 48 sites across central and southern China, together with key environmental factors including long-term climatic data, topographic features, main crops, and land cover types. Trend surface analysis found that the distribution of kdr frequency can be partitioned into three regions, namely central China (kdr frequency >80%), western China (kdr frequency varies from 0% to 60%), and southern China (kdr frequency