Potentially toxic elements in the Middle East oldest oil refinery zone soils: source apportionment, speciation, bioaccessibility and human health risk assessment

In this research, fifteen potentially toxic elements (PTEs) (Al, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sc and Zn) were analysed and quantified in samples collected at 44 sites in an urban area of Iran. Sources were apportioned using enrichment factors (EFs), modified pollution index (MPI), principal component analysis (PCA), multivariate linear regression of absolute principal component scores (MLR-APCS) and speciation, with a focus on anthropogenic PTEs in the urban and industrial soils of the Arvand Free Zone area, an oil-rich zone in the country. Furthermore, the bioaccessibility and the human health risks of PTEs were investigated. The EF revealed a significant enrichment for elements such as Cd, Cu, Hg, Mo, Pb, Sb and Zn. Values of MPI showed that Abadan industrial district and Abadan petrochemical complex are the most polluted sites in the study area.The PCA/MLR analysis revealed four main sources: natural sources, fossil fuel combustion, traffic and oil derivatives and petroleum waste. The relative contribution of each source to PTE concentration varied from 32.3% of the natural sources to 30.6% of traffic and from 20.1% of petroleum waste to 17% of fossil fuel combustion. The source apportionment of metals generated using MLR-APCS receptor modelling revealed that 85.0% of Hg was generated by oil products. Chemical speciation results were compatible with the results obtained from PCA. Bioaccessibility of PTEs decreased from gastric to intestinal phase except Mo and Sb due to their different geochemical characteristics. Hazard index (HI) for non-cancer risk of PTEs for both children and adults based on total element concentrations was estimated to range from 2-fold to more than 10-fold higher than that of bioaccessible phases.