Triple Oxygen Isotopes in Evolving Continental Crust, Granites, and Clastic Sediments

This Chapter considers triple oxygen isotope variations and their 4 Gyr temporal evolution in bulk siliciclastic sedimentary rocks and in granites. The d18O and D'17O values provide new insights into weathering in the modern and ancient hydrosphere and coeval crustal petrogenesis. We make use of the known geological events and processes that affect the rock cycle: supercontinent assembly and breakup that influence continent-scale and global climate, the fraction of the exposed crust undergoing weathering, and isotopic values of precipitation. New data from a 5000 m Texas drillhole into the Oligocene Frio Formation demonstrate minimal isotopic shifts from mudrocks to shales during diagenesis, mostly related to expulsion of water from smectite-rich loosely cemented sediment and its conversion to illite-rich shale. Inversion of triple oxygen isotope fractionations return isotopic values and temperatures along the hole depth that are more consistent with weathering conditions in the Oligocene and modern North America (d18O = -7 to -15‰, and T of +15 to +45°C) rather than d18O from 8 to 10‰ diagenetic water in the drill hole at 175-195°C. More precise T and d18Owater are obtained where the chemical index of alteration (CIA) based detrital contribution is subtracted from these sediments. Triple oxygen isotopes from suspended sediments in major world rivers record conditions (T and d18Ow) of their watersheds, and not the composition of bedrock because weathering is water-dominated. In parallel, the Chapter presents new analyses of 100 granites, orthogneisses, migmatites, tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG), and large-volume ignimbrites from around the world that range in age from 4 Ga to modern. Most studied granites are orogenic and anatectic in origin and represent large volume remelting/assimilation of shales and other metasediments; the most crustal and high-d18O of these are thus reflect and record the average composition of evolving continental crust. Granites also develop a significant progressive increase in d18O values from 6-7‰ (4-2.5 Ga) to 10-13‰ (~1.8-1.2 Ga) after which d18O stays constant or even decreases. More importantly, we observe a moderate -0.03‰ step-wise decrease in D'17O between 2.1 and 2.5 Ga, which is about half of the step-wise decrease observed in shales over this time interval. We suggest that granites, as well as shales, record the significant advent and greater volumetric appearance of low-D'17O, high-d18O weathering products (shales) altered by meteoric waters upon rapid emergence of large land masses at ~2.4 Ga, although consider alternative interpretations. These weathering products were incorporated into abundant 2.0-1.8 Ga orogens around the world, where upon remelting, they passed their isotopic signature to the granites. We further observe the dichotomy of high-D'17O Archean shales, and unusually low-D'17O Archean granites. We attribute this to greater contribution from shallow crustal hydrothermal contribution to shales in greenstone belts, while granites in the earliest 3.0-4.0 Ga crust and TTGs require involvement of hydrothermal products with lower-D'17O signatures at moderately high-d18O, which we attribute to secondary silicification of their protoliths before partial melting. The Chapter further discusses evolution of the shale record through geologic history and discusses the step-wise change in d18O and D'17O values at Archean/Proterozoic transition. Denser coverage for shales in the past 1 billion years permits investigation of the rocks and their weathering in the last supercontinent cycle, with observed lighter d18O values, characteristic for the mid-Phanerozoic at the initiation of Gondwana breakup. The continuing increase in d18O values of the shales since 4 Ga is interpreted to reflect accumulation of weathering products via shale accretion to continents, as low-density and buoyant shales tend to not subduct back into the mantle. The rock cycle passes triple oxygen isotopic signatures from precipitation to sedimentary, metasedimentary, and finally to anatectic igneous rocks. Continental crust became progressively heavier in d18O, lighter in D'17O due to incremental accumulation of high-d18O sediments in accretionary wedges. Second-order trends in d18O and D'17O are due to supercontinent cycles and glacial episodes.