Combustion particles as ice nuclei in an urban environment: Evidence from single-particle mass spectrometry

This paper presents measurements of the single-particle composition of ice nuclei (IN) in downtown Toronto, Canada, made at 239 ± 1 K, 134 ± 2% relative humidity with respect to ice (RHi). IN were activated within the University of Toronto Continuous-Flow Diffusion Chamber (UT-CFDC), separated from background aerosol using a pumped counterflow virtual impactor (PCVI), and analyzed using a dual-polarity single-particle mass spectrometer (ATOFMS). To account for particles leaked by the PCVI, the ratio of particles observed at high RHi to low RHi was calculated. This ratio was greater than unity for EC (elemental carbon), BB (biomass burning) and dust particles, however only the increase in EC was statistically significant (1σ level) due to a low number of detected particles. The remaining particle categories were: metal-rich organic carbon (M/OC), potassium-rich OC (K/OC), OC potentially mixed with EC (OC/EC) and “other”, none of which were enhanced in number at high RHi. To complement the direct PCVI observations and enhance the number of spectra available, a second study was performed where particle composition and IN concentrations (CIN) were measured in parallel. IN concentrations were regressed against the same categories as above, and dust, BB and EC particles were identified as the best predictors of CIN. Consistency between these two methods provides increased confidence in their individual results and encourages additional study of these potential IN.