Critical elements in porphyry copper deposits of China

As the world’s major source of Cu, Mo, and Au, porphyry copper deposits are magmatic-hydrothermal systems in which base and precious metals are deposited from aqueous solutions at temperatures generally >300°C. During formation of the deposits, metal-transporting fluids typically affected large volumes (up to ~100 km3) of upper crustal rocks, which has led to enormous mass redistribution and local concentration of many elements. Several critical elements, including Re, Se, and Te that are typically not found as primary ores, are locally concentrated in some porphyry copper deposits. Presently, mining and milling of porphyry copper deposits supply ~80% of the world’s Re and nearly all of the Se and Te. China has about 70 economic porphyry copper deposits, including 11 giant and 16 large deposits, with total pre-mining resources of ~78 million tonnes (Mt) Cu averaging 0.2% to 1% Cu, ~4.7 Mt Mo averaging 0.01% to 0.08% Mo, and 1400 tonnes (t) Au averaging 0.5 g/t Au. Rhenium, Se, Te, and PGE (platinum group elements) have been reported to be enriched in some porphyry copper deposits in China, but their tonnage, grade, occurrence, and resource potential remain unclear. In this study, based on a simple synthesis of critical elements in the porphyry copper deposits worldwide and geological characteristics of Chinese porphyry copper deposits, we systematically summarize these attributes of critical elements, particularly Re, in the porphyry copper deposits of China. The porphyry copper deposits in China are mainly concentrated in the following belts or districts: The Gangdese belt in southern Tibet, the Yulong belt in eastern Tibet, the Duolong district in central Tibet, the Zhongdian belt in northwestern Yunnan Province, the Central Asian orogenic belt across northern China, the Zhongtiaoshan belt in Shanxi Province, the Middle-Lower Yangtze River Valley belt, and the Dexing district in Jiangxi Province. Chinese porphyry copper deposits were formed during Paleoproterozoic, Ordovician, Carboniferous, Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous, and Eocene to Miocene, with the majority forming during the latter two time periods. Approximately 45% of the giant and ~30% of the large porphyry copper deposits in China formed in arc settings, whereas at least 35% of the giant and ~45% of the large porphyry copper deposits in China occured in post-collisional settings. The porphyry copper deposits in China typically contain ~3−313 t of Re at average grades ranging from 0.03 to 0.5 g/t Re, with ten deposits containing >50 t Re. The Re-rich porphyry copper deposits in China were mainly formed during Jurassic and Eocene to Miocene. The three largest deposits (Yulong, Jiama, and Qulong), in terms of contained Re, were formed during Eocene to Miocene and in a postcollisional setting. Rhenium in these porphyry copper deposits mainly occurs in molybdenite, and is associated with potassic and/or phyllic alteration. Average Re content in molybdenite from these deposits ranges from 30 to 1000 ppm, but shows a negative correlation with the Mo grade of the corresponding deposit. In contrast, there are only limited data on the endowment of Se, Te, and PGE for Chinese porphyry copper deposits. Similar to porphyry copper deposits worldwide, Se, Te, and PGE in Chinese porphyry copper deposits are concentrated in the sulfide minerals. The contents of Se and Te in sulfide minerals from several deposits (e.g., Bolong, Shaxi) range from ~3 to 700 ppm and are typically highest (generally >300 ppm) in Cu-bearing sulfides (e.g., bornite, chalcopyrite). Concentrations of PGE in ores of Chinese porphyry copper deposits are highly variable, with Pd+Pt contents ranging from 0.2 to 450 ppb. In summary, Chinese porphyry copper deposits, particularly those in postcollisional settings, show similar grades of Re, Se, Te, and PGE to porphyry copper deposits worldwide, indicating a large potential of these critical elements in Chinese porphyry copper deposits to meet the nation’s economic needs. To better understand the occurrence, resource potential, and enrichment processes of critical elements in the porphyry copper deposits of China, detailed case studies and regional comparisons, as well as improvements in analytical techniques, are a pressing need.