Scale-dependent drivers of ungulate patch use along a temporal and spatial gradient of snow depth

Anthropogenic changes in landscape composition or configuration have the potential to increase the abundance of generalist species, often resulting in cascading effects on other trophic levels and ecosystem function. The selection or utilization of individual patches of habitat, however, may vary in both time and space, as a result of patch and landscape attributes as well as dynamic abiotic factors (i.e., snowfall). We hypothesized that the use of high-quality habitat would be most strongly influenced by snow at local scales and by composition and the configuration of the landscape at greater spatial scales. To test this, we examined white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) selection of eastern hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carrière) patches as winter habitat over a 3-year period. Patch-level attributes were poor predictors of patch use in areas with strong gradients in abiotic factors relevant to the energetics of movement or forage acquisition. Additionally, heterogeneity in the greater landscape (3000 m radius buffer) served to increase use, while homogeneity appeared to decrease use. Our results suggest that interactions between deer migratory behavior, interannual variation in winter severity, and landscape context might provide spatial and temporal refugia for hemlock regeneration; a better understanding of which could aide conservation and restoration.