Dramatic Impact of Materials Combinations on the Chemical Organization of Core–Shell Nanocrystals: Boosting the Tm3+Emission above 1600 nm

This article represents the first foray into investigating the consequences of various material combinations on the short-wave infrared (SWIR, 1000–2000 nm) performance of Tm-based core–shell nanocrystals (NCs) above 1600 nm. In total, six different material combinations involving two different types of SWIR-emitting core NCs (α-NaTmF4and LiTmF4) combined with three different protecting shell materials (α-NaYF4, CaF2, and LiYF4) have been synthesized. All corresponding homo- and heterostructured NCs have been meticulously characterized by powder X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy techniques. The latter revealed that out of the six investigated combinations, only one led to the formation of a true core–shell structure with well-segregated core and shell domains. The direct correlation between the downshifting performance and the spatial localization of Tm3+ions within the final homo- and heterostructured NCs is established. Interestingly, to achieve the best SWIR performance, the formation of an abrupt interface is not a prerequisite, while the existence of a pure (even thin) protective shell is vital. Remarkably, although all homo- and heterostructured NCs have been synthesized under the exact same experimental conditions, Tm3+SWIR emission is either fully quenched or highly efficient depending on the type of material combination. The most efficient combination (LiTmF4/LiYF4) achieved a high photoluminescence quantum yield of 39% for SWIR emission above 1600 nm (excitation power density in the range 0.5–3 W/cm2) despite significant intermixing. From now on, highly efficient SWIR-emitting probes with an emission above 1600 nm are within reach to unlock the full potential of in vivoSWIR imaging.