Rumsfeld's Heuristic: A Metaphor for Understanding the Knowns and Unknowns of Rework in Construction

Poor quality in construction often manifests in the need for rework to be performed. Yet, no specific theory exists in the literature to provide practical guidance to mitigate rework. While common conceptualizations of rework abound, they fall short of the strict empirical testing required to develop a “good” theory. Rumsfeld's heuristic suggests that within complex production systems such as construction, there are known knowns, known unknowns, and unknown unknowns. Using this heuristic as a metaphor, we undertake a narrative review of the literature to make sense of what is known, determine the key unsolved problems, and identify issues that research has failed to consider about rework in this article. Our article questions prevailing knowledge and aims to stimulate richer and more in-depth lines of inquiry to make headway toward developing a theory that explains rework causation. The much-needed theory would provide a platform for designing and developing effective strategies for mitigating rework in construction. This article's contributions are twofold as: (1) it identifies unresolved issues stymieing the ability to address rework effectively; and (2) promulgates new avenues of inquiry to create an improved understanding of the rework phenomenon, thus setting the foundation for sparking theoretical development.