Rare NRPSGene Cluster for Desferriferrichrome Biosynthesis Controls the Conflict between Trap Formation and Nematicidal Activity in Arthrobotrys oligospora

The formation of the trapping device induced by nematodes has been assumed as an indicator for a switch from saprophytic to predacious lifestyles for nematode-trapping fungi. However, fungal nematocidal activity is not completely synonymous with fungal trap formation. We found that the predominant nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotrys oligosporaharbored a rare NRPS(Ao415) gene cluster that was mainly distributed in nematode-trapping fungi. The gene Ao415putatively encodes a protein with a unique domain organization, distinct from other NRPSs in other fungi. Mutation of the two key biosynthetic genes Ao415and Ao414combined with nontarget metabolic analysis revealed that the Ao415gene cluster was responsible for the biosynthesis of a hydroxamate siderophore, desferriferrichrome (1). Lack of desferriferrichrome (1) and its hydroxamate precursor (3) could lead to significantly increased Fe3+content, which induced fungal trap formation without a nematode inducer. Furthermore, the addition of Fe3+strongly improved fungal trap formation but deleteriously caused broken traps. The addition of 1significantly attenuated trap formation but enhanced fungal nematicidal activity. Our findings indicate that iron is a key factor for trap formation and provide a new insight into the underlying mechanism of siderophores in nematode-trapping fungi.