Single-grain luminescence and combined U-series/ESR dating of the early Upper Palaeolithic Lagar Velho Rock Shelter, Leiria, Portugal.

The existing radiocarbon (¹⁴C) dating framework for Lagar Velho is broadly consistent but provides limited constraint on several geoarchaeological complexes (GCs) and does not favour detailed chronological comparisons across all sectors of the site; including the stratigraphically disconnected child burial complex in the east area and the broader archaeological sequence in the central-west area. In this study, we undertake a complementary chronological assessment of Lagar Velho Rock Shelter using single-grain quartz OSL, single-grain quartz TT-OSL and combined U-series/ESR dating of fossil teeth, with the aim of establishing more comprehensive reconstructions of archaeological events and placing the human occupation sequence in a firmer regional climatic context. Expanding on the original chronological study, we also compare the published ¹⁴C datasets against widely used sample quality indicators (i.e., organic preservation and contamination proxies) to ensure reliable comparisons with our new luminescence and combined U-series/ESR ages. Eight ¹⁴C samples pass our combined chronological and stratigraphic hygiene criteria and are included in the final dating evaluations. Ten of the twelve optical dating samples produce homogeneous equivalent dose (D e) datasets indicative of suitable daylight exposure. The replicate single-grain TT-OSL D e datasets exhibit more pronounced scatter, consistent with enhanced potential for insufficient bleaching of TT-OSL residual doses in some karst settings. The fossil enamel samples dated using U-series/ESR span relatively low natural dose ranges, necessitating the inclusion of maximum dose (D max)-adjusted dose response curve fitting and additional background noise subtraction to avoid D e biases of up to 13%. Stratigraphically consistent ages (n = 26) spanning the full archaeological infill sequence are obtained using the four different dating methods, providing a robust interpretive framework and underscoring the significant role of single-grain OSL and combined U-series/ESR dating for refining early Upper Palaeolithic histories of Iberia. Bayesian modelling of the combined chronological dataset reveals a site accumulation history spanning 35,750–23,440 cal. BP and provides improved age constraints on all GCs; particularly the al , bs , tc , gs and ls deposits that were previously undated or imprecisely constrained. The age of the child burial complex is refined to 29,410–28,280 cal. BP, potentially occurring within Greenland Interstadial 4. Comparison of the modelled GC ages from the east and west-central areas enables improved temporal correlations of depositional events across stratigraphically disconnected sectors of the site. This analysis suggests that the child burial complex and the Late Gravettian occupation are statistically indistinguishable based on current dating evidence. The new dating assessments reveal three periods of human occupation at Lagar Velho: the Late Gravettian (including the shorter duration child burial event) 31.6–26.0 ka from the end of Heinrich Stadial (HS) 3 until the emergence of HS2; the Terminal Gravettian 26.5–24.5 ka coinciding with HS2; and the Middle Solutrean 25.2–23.4 ka extending from HS2 to the end of Greenland Stadial 3. The timing of these occupations during late Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 and early MIS 2 highlights the significance of central western Portugal for supporting regional human populations during periods when much of Europe was experiencing extreme cold, aridity and expanded glacial coverage. • Consistent OSL, TT-OSL, US-ESR and ¹⁴C ages obtained for the archaeological sequence. • Bayesian modelling reveals site accumulation history spans 35,750–23,440 cal. BP. • Child burial age refined to 29,410–28,280 cal. BP, potentially within GI4. • Three human activity phases correspond with short-term climate cycles in MIS2. • Central-west Portugal was a key refugium for human populations during HS2 and LGM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]