Effects of ozone air pollution on crop pollinators and pollination.

• Ozone modulates the effect of pesticide exposure on crop pollinators. • Interacting effects between ozone and pesticide differed between Apis and non- Apis. • Ozone negatively impacts the contribution of pollinators to crop production. • Ozone should be considered for environmental policies in favor of biodiversity. Human driven environmental changes increase the concentrations of polluting reactive compounds in the troposphere, such as ozone and nitrogen oxides. These changes lead to biodiversity losses and alter plant physiology and plant-pollinator interactions, essential for pollination services, with potential consequences for agricultural production. Here we used 133 unique sampling events from NW Europe to investigate how air pollution (ozone and nitrogen oxides) and other sources of nitrogen is related to pollinator visitation rate and their contribution to agricultural production, also considering possible interactive effects with landscape quality and pesticide input. We showed that ozone modulates the effect of pesticide exposure and temperature on crop pollinators, increasing the probability of negative impacts on crop pollination. Indeed, when ozone levels are highest, the strength of the effect of pesticide on pollinators is more than double then when ozone levels are intermediate. This indicates that air pollution should be considered in management plans and policies aiming to safeguard biodiversity and promote more sustainable food production practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]