Single dead trees matter: Small-scale canopy gaps increase the species richness, diversity and abundance of birds breeding in a temperate deciduous forest.

• The death of a single tree or group of trees create small-scale canopy gaps. • Small-scale canopy gaps increase species richness, diversity and abundance of birds. • Large snags accumulated in canopy gaps enhance species richness and abundance. • Cavity- and ground-nesting birds benefit from gap presence. • Priority conservation species benefits from gap presence in deciduous forests. Canopy gaps produced by natural disturbances are an important source of structural and functional heterogeneity within forest ecosystems. However, the effect of natural, small-scale canopy gaps, caused by the mortality of a single tree or a group of trees, on bird assemblages has not been adequately addressed in temperate deciduous forests. We studied the effects of small-scale canopy gaps on the breeding birds of old-growth deciduous forests in the Carpathians (SE Poland). Our hypothesis was that such small gaps and the adjacent closed-canopy forest would differ in bird richness, diversity and relative abundance. Breeding bird assemblages were surveyed using point counts in 30 canopy gaps (mean area 301 m² ± 228 SD, range: 37–970 m²) and in 30 control plots situated in the adjacent closed-canopy forest. The species richness, diversity and relative abundance of birds were significantly higher in the gaps than in the control plots and were correlated with the number of large snags. Collared Flycatcher Ficedula albicollis and White-backed Woodpecker Dendrocopos leucotos occurred more frequently in the gaps than in the control plots. Eurasian Treecreeper Certhia familiaris , Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla , Song Thrush Turdus philomelos and Eurasian Nuthatch Sitta europaea were more abundant in the gaps than in the control plots. The species richness of cavity- and ground-nesters was higher and these birds were more abundant in the gaps than in the control plots. The presence/absence of a gap and the number of large snags recorded in it explained 35.4% and 52.7% of the deviance in the total number of species and the total number of individual birds, respectively. Our results indicate that even small-scale canopy gaps, in combination with the large snags recorded in them resulting from the death of a single tree or group of trees, affect bird assemblages in deciduous forests as measured by the occurrence or abundance of individual species or community indices. We suggest that treefall gaps, which are heterogeneous structures, mediate the spatial distribution of bird territories within a stand and are crucial for the biodiversity of temperate deciduous forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]