Shell-adductor muscle attachment and Ca2+ transport in the bivalves Ostrea stentina and Anomia ephippium.

Among bivalve muscles, the adductors are particularly important for animal survival because they control valve closure. Most studies have addressed the type and morphology of this muscle in bivalves but few have focused on the mechanism that anchors it to the shell myostracum layer. Moreover, the possible calcium transport mechanism through the adductor muscle cells to the myostracum shell layer, which is necessary for bivalve biomineralisation, has never been addressed. Our results indicate that the muscle cell-shell attachment is mediated by the outer mantle epithelial cell layer, here termed tendon cells. These cells are modified at the muscle scar zone by the presence of actin cytoskeletal bundles, which anchor cells to the extracellular matrix via focal adhesion (or focal contact) junctions at the basal side and to extrapallial matrix at the apical side, both rich in collagen. From apical focal adhesions, bundles of collagen-rich fibres cross the extrapallial space and penetrate the myostracum shell layer. The latter constitutes one of the strongest anchoring structures among invertebrates. Numerous vesicles protrude from the tendon cells into the extrapallial space. TEM-EDX analysis reveals the presence of Ca²⁺ inside some of these vesicles both in tendon cells and in the extrapallial space. This suggests a potential mechanism for calcium transport from cells to the myostracum. The interfaces between bivalve shells and muscular attachments are unique and of special interest as adhesive functional biomaterials, being one of the strongest invertebrate anchoring structures. We present an updated ultrastructural model of the adductor muscle-shell attachment. Muscle cells connect with the shell through epithelial 'tendon cells', which have a cytoskeleton of actin microfilaments that connect to the extracellular matrix via focal adhesions. Collagen-rich fibres arise from apical focal adhesions, cross the nanometric extrapallial space and penetrate the myostracum where they form an organic network. Calcium is present inside vesicles that are released into the extrapallial space. The lack of direct cellular control on secretion restricts the myostracal microstructure to prismatic aragonitic similar to its inorganic counterpart. Image, graphical abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]