Herbivory on aquatic macrophytes by geese and swans--a review of methods, effects, and management.

IN RECENT DECADES, interest has grown in how increasing populations of herbivorous geese and swans (Anseriformes: Anatidae: Anserinae) affect macrophyte communities in wetlands, especially because many waterbodies are simultaneously subjected to stressors like eutrophication and biodiversity declines. Here, we review the literature on methods applied in grazing experiments that have been conducted in aquatic ecosystems. We also investigate and how different macrophyte characteristics may respond to waterfowl herbivory. Results indicate that both research methodology and responses of macrophytes differ widely among studies. While most experimental studies on grazing pressure employ a 'paired plot design' with exclosures and open control plots, the structure, size, and placement of plots vary among studies. Commonly sampled macrophyte variables are biomass (of either above- or below-ground plant parts), density, height, plant cover, and community composition. The literature provides support that geese and swans significantly affect several of these variables, but the outcome depends on additional factors, e.g. waterfowl density, water depth, and timing (within or between seasons/years). Because of the persisting conservation threats to aquatic ecosystems, more knowledge is needed about potential direct and indirect consequences of waterfowl herbivory in these environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]