The use of leaderboards in education: A systematic review of empirical evidence in higher education.

Background: Leaderboards are among the most popular gamification elements in education. Some studies have implemented leaderboards and reported their individual effects on students' learning. Despite the emergence of relevant empirical studies, most of the existing reviews have only investigated the holistic impact of gamification. No previous systematic reviews were identified examining the individual use of leaderboards. Objective: To address this gap, this review aims to systematically synthesise the existing empirical evidence concerning leaderboard use in education, examine their designs and effectiveness, and propose leaderboard design recommendations in gamified educational settings. Method: This systematic review drew upon 20 articles (22 studies; 29 interventions) published from 2014 to 2023. Results: The results found that using leaderboards can have a beneficial influence on students' learning motivation, engagement, and performance, but their effectiveness largely depends on their designs. Thus, this review examined the effectiveness of specific leaderboard design practices on students' learning and proposed four corresponding leaderboard design recommendations based on well‐established educational and motivational theories as well as pertinent empirical studies. Discussions and Conclusions: Notably, this review found that all included studies were undertaken in higher education and around half of them had short durations (less than or equal to 1 h). More longitudinal studies in other educational levels (e.g., primary and secondary schools) are thus called for to examine the validity and generalisability of the recommendations proposed. Lay Description: What is currently known about this topic?: Leaderboards are among the most popular gamification elements in education.Studies have reported mixed effects of leaderboards on students' learning. What does this paper add?: Many studies were conducted in higher education and had a short duration.The effectiveness of leaderboards largely depends on their design.This review proposes four leaderboard design recommendations. Implications for practice/or policy: Longitudinal studies in primary or secondary schools are called for.Absolute leaderboards with low‐ranking students anonymised may be more effective.Leaderboards should rank students based on their performance and engagement.Leaderboards should be used with clear ranking rules and goal‐related feedback. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]