Revisiting the Civil Examinations in the Qing Dynasty: Popularization and Social Transitions.

Recent literature has pointed out the increased stratification and narrowing of the social ladder embedded in the Qing-era civil examinations. This essay sees a clear-cut division between the diminishing opportunity for high-level degrees (above juren 舉人) and the rising exam fever in competing for the licentiate degree (shengyuan 生員) at the grassroots level. This study focuses on the popularization of civil exams in the Qing era from three perspectives: the inflation of the licentiate degree, the surging exam population across society, and the unintended by-product of expanded access to widespread education and literacy culture. Thus, this essay argues that the popularization of civil exams had far-reaching impacts on socioeconomic transitions in Qing China. In addition to the "gatekeeper" function of the civil examinations for selecting officials, the Qing exams triggered new occupations for licentiates and helped initiate self-employment orientations that contributed to accommodating the tremendous surplus population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]