Pollination strategies are exceptionally complex in southwestern Australia - a globally significant ancient biodiversity hotspot.

Context. The Southwest Australian Floristic Region has exceptional plant evolutionary complexity for fire, nutrition and pollination traits. Aims. Our aim was to allocate pollination strategies to all vascular plants in this biodiversity hotspot by analysing existing and new data. Methods. Here we assigned a flower syndrome to ~8800 plants in this region, using floral traits and visitation records for insects, birds or mammals, which were well correlated. Key results. Specific insect relationships were most common (3383), especially with native bees (2410), including buzz pollination (450). Others were pollinated by wind (1054 plants), water (35) or had relatively unspecialised flowers visited by diverse insects (3026). Specific associations with flies (588) or butterflies and moths (165) were less common. Approximately 14% were primarily pollinated by birds (601) or birds and insects (583) - with much larger flowers (corresponding with bird bill lengths), and less insect-attracting colours (e.g. red or green). Nonflying mammals, especially honey possums, visit certain flowers along with birds. Pollination complexity peaked in the Myrtaceae (11% bird, 25% bird and insect), Fabaceae (2% bird, 46% bee, 2% buzz pollination) and Proteaceae (40% birds, 31% specific insects). Bird pollination also has multiple origins in the Ericaceae (8%), Haemodoraceae (20%), Rutaceae (16%), Pittosporaceae (14%) and Eremophila (45%). Extreme specialisations included secondary pollen presentation (1231), post-pollination colour change (72), mobile columns (310), explosive pollen release (137) and visual (209) or sexual (171) deception in orchids. Pollination trait complexity included >275 evolutionary transitions, especially from insects to birds (130), more specific insects (100), or wind (15). These followed similar morphological pathways within families but differed between them. Conclusions. This complexity appears to be globally unique, and peaks in highly speciose plant families with diversity centred in the region. Implications. This has ecological and genetic consequences, especially for rare flora management, ecosystem restoration and assessing plant vulnerability to habitat degradation, fire and climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]