Ammonium Phytotoxicity and Tolerance: An Insight into Ammonium Nutrition to Improve Crop Productivity.

Ammonium sensitivity is considered a globally stressful condition that affects overall crop productivity. The major toxic symptom associated with ammonium nutrition is growth retardation, which has been associated with a high energy cost for maintaining ion, pH, and hormone homeostasis and, eventually, the NH₃/NH₄⁺ level in plant tissues. While certain species/genotypes exhibit extreme sensitivity to ammonium, other species/genotypes prefer ammonium to nitrate as a form of nitrogen. Some of the key tolerance mechanisms used by the plant to deal with NH₄⁺ toxicity include an enhanced activity of an alternative oxidase pathway in mitochondria, greater NH₄⁺ assimilation plus the retention of the minimum level of NH₄⁺ in leaves, and/or poor response to extrinsic acidification or pH drop. Except for toxicity, ammonium can be considered as an energy-efficient nutrition in comparison to nitrate since it is already in a reduced form for use in amino acid metabolism. Through effective manipulation of the NH₄⁺/NO₃ ⁻ ratio, ammonium nutrition can be used to increase productivity, quality, and resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses of crops. This review highlights recent advancements in ammonium toxicity and tolerance mechanisms, possible strategies to improve ammonium tolerance, and omics-based understanding of nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]