Four new Solenogastres (Mollusca, Aplacophora) from the South China Sea and paraphyly of Proneomeniidae Simroth, 1893.

Solenogastres and Caudofoveata (Aplacophora) remain some of the least known molluscs, despite ubiquity in the marine environment and importance in understanding molluscan evolution. The use of new morphological techniques and development of DNA barcode libraries have helped make specimen identification easier. However, for solenogasters, using histology for identification and adequate description of species remains necessary in most cases. This, together with the facts that knowledge about solenogaster species distributions is biased and that most species were described from one or very few individuals, explains why many open questions about the actual distribution, intra- and interspecific variability, etc., remain. We performed an integrative taxonomic study of eight specimens of solenogasters from the South China Sea (West Pacific Ocean) thatresulted in the identification of four new species of Proneomeniidae. Species identification and description following the established diagnostic characters were straightforward. However, phylogenetic analysis of molecular data obtained from these specimens and other members of Proneomeniidae indicate that the family is polyphyletic. We recovered representatives of two other families, Epimeniidae (Epimenia) and Strophomeniidae (Anamenia), nested within Proneomeniidae with strong support. Ancestral character state reconstruction indicates that characters commonly used in solenogaster taxonomy, such as the radula and foregut glands, may be more evolutionarily labile in this group than previously known. Therefore our work fills knowledge gaps regarding the diversity and distribution of members of this family but raises important questions about solenogaster taxonomy and systematics that should be further assessed with additional markers and broader taxon sampling. ZooBank: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:BCADACD6-9AD0-442A-AD64-031BA8D88599 We describe four new species of Solenogastres (Mollusca, Aplacophora) from the South China Sea (West Pacific). In addition to the morphological descriptions, we sequenced two mitochondrial genes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the non-monophyly of the family Proneomeniidae. Ancestral character state reconstruction indicates that some characters commonly used in solenogaster taxonomy need to be revaluated. Thus, this work fills in knowledge gaps regarding the diversity and distribution of solenogasters and raises important questions about their taxonomy and systematics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]