Canopy structure, topography and weather are equally important drivers of small-scale snow cover dynamics in sub-alpine forests.

In mountain regions, forests that overlap with seasonal snow mostly reside in complex terrain. Due to persisting major observational challenges in these environments, the combined impact of forest structure and topography on seasonal snow cover dynamics is still poorly understood. Recent advances in forest snow process representation and increasing availability of detailed canopy structure datasets, however, now allow for hyper-resolution (<5 m) snow model simulations capable of resolving tree-scale processes, which can shed light on the complex process interactions that govern forest snow dynamics. We present multi-year simulations at 2 m resolution obtained with FSM2, a mass- and energy-balance based forest snow model specifically developed and validated for meter-scale applications. We simulate a ~ 3 km² model domain encompassing forested slopes of a sub-alpine valley in the Eastern Swiss Alps and six snow seasons. Simulations thus span a wide range of canopy structures, terrain characteristics, and meteorological conditions. We analyse spatial and temporal variations in forest snow energy balance partitioning, aiming to quantify and understand the contribution of individual energy exchange processes at different locations and times. Our results suggest that snow cover evolution is equally affected by canopy structure, terrain characteristics and meteorological conditions. We show that the interaction of these three factors can lead to snow distribution and melt patterns that vary between years. We further identify higher snow distribution variability and complexity in slopes that receive solar radiation early in winter. Our process-level insights corroborate and complement existing empirical findings that are largely based on snow distribution datasets only. Hyper-resolution simulations as presented here thus help to better understand how snowpacks and ecohydrological regimes in sub-alpine regions may evolve as a result of forest disturbances and a warming climate. They could further support the development of process-based sub-grid forest snow cover parametrizations or tiling approaches for coarse-resolution modelling applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]