Moving Into the Loop: An Investigation of Drivers' Steering Behavior in Highly Automated Vehicles.

<bold>Objective: </bold>This paper investigates driver engagement with vehicle automation and the transition to manual control in the context of a phenomenon that we have termed vicarious steering-drivers steering when the vehicle is under automated control.<bold>Background: </bold>Automated vehicles introduce many challenges, including disengagement from the driving task and out-of-the-loop performance decrement. We examine drivers' steering behavior when the automation is engaged, and steering input has no effect on the vehicle state. Such vicarious steering is a potential indicator of engagement for evaluating automated vehicles.<bold>Method: </bold>A total of 32 female and 32 male drivers between 25 and 55 years of age participated in this experiment. A 2 × 2 between-subject design combined control algorithms and instructed responsibility. The control algorithms (lane centering and adaptive) were intended to convey the capability of the automation. The adaptive algorithm drifted across the lane center when latent hazards were present. The instructed levels of responsibility (driver primarily responsible and automation primarily responsible) were intended to replicate the admonitions of owners' manuals.<bold>Results: </bold>The adaptive algorithm increased vicarious steering (p < .001), but instructed responsibility did not (p = .67), and there was no interaction between the algorithm and the responsibility (p = .75). Vicarious steering was associated with an increase in transitions to manual control and glances to the road but was negatively associated with driving performance immediately after the transition to manual control.<bold>Conclusion: </bold>Vicarious steering is a promising indicator of driver engagement when the vehicle is under automated control and automation algorithms can promote engagement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]