Different patterns of behavioral variation across and within species of spiders with differing degrees of urbanization.

Behavioral characteristics importantly shape an animals' ability to adapt to changing conditions. The notion that behavioral flexibility facilitates exploitation of urban environments has received mixed support, but recent studies propose that between-individual differences are important. We leverage existing knowledge on three species of orb-web spider (Araneidae, Araneae) whose abundances differ along an urban-rural gradient to test predictions about between- and within-species/individual behavioral variation. We sampled Larinioides sclopetarius from their urban environment, and two species from suburban environments, Zygiella x-notata and Nuctenea umbratica. For each species, we quantified activity in a novel environment and within-species aggression. We analyzed between- and within-individual variation in behavior as well as their repeatability and correlations. As predicted, L. sclopetarius exhibited the highest activity in a novel environment and N. umbratica the lowest. Across all species, males were more aggressive than females and Z. x-notata was the most aggressive, followed by L. sclopetarius and N. umbratica. For all species, between-individual differences in activity and aggressiveness were repeatable; but the two behaviors were not correlated for any species. We next tested how group composition in relation to aggressiveness affects survival in high density conditions. Groups of Z. x-notata consisting of aggressive and tolerant spiders had higher survival rates than groups composed of only aggressive or tolerant individuals. Ultimately, we uncovered a complex pattern of behavioral variation between species as well as between and within individuals and we discuss the relative roles of this variation with respect to adapting to urban environments. Significance statement: Urbanization has drastically changed biodiversity patterns. While the majority of species cope poorly with urban habitats, some species flourish in cities. Our understanding of behavioral characteristics that facilitate this exploitation, however, remains poor. We explored between and within species and individual variation in behaviors in ecologically similar orb-weaving spider species whose abundances differ along the urban-rural gradient. We detect both consistent individual differences and plasticity, in individuals' response to a novel environment, suggesting that some degree of flexibility in reaction to novelty may be crucial in an urbanized environment. We also found that variation in aggressiveness type enables survival in high density conditions, conditions typical for urban populations. Urban populations thus exhibit a complex pattern of behavioral flexibility and behavioral stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]