Trees and shrubs used in medieval Poland for making everyday objects.

This article presents the results of the wood identification of 3,867 everyday objects dated from the 9th to the 15th century ad, which were excavated from 48 medieval strongholds and early urban centres in Poland. The analyses have shown that medieval craftsmen used the wood of 27 tree and shrub taxa. The timber used the most was <italic>Pinus sylvestris</italic> (pine), <italic>Quercus</italic> sp. (oak), <italic>Fraxinus excelsior</italic> (ash) and <italic>Alnus</italic> sp. (alder). Pine was used mainly to make vessels out of staves (curved pieces of wood) such as buckets and tubs, and for torches for lighting; oak was used for furniture, barrels, cart axles, spades and club hammers used by carpenters. Ash wood was the main material used for making turned bowls, and alder for making articles which were to be in long-lasting contact with water, such as beaters and scoops. Wood studies agree with historical records about the intensive use of yew wood, which finally caused the decrease of <italic>Taxus baccata</italic> in woodlands in the 14th and 15th centuries. Also, the wood of shrubs such as <italic>Euonymus</italic> sp. (spindle) and <italic>Sambucus</italic> sp. (elder) was quite often used. The choice of wood for the specific needs of a particular craft in medieval Poland was done selectively and it was determined by the particular function of the object being made, but at the same time it was limited by availability from the local woodlands. Regional differentiation in the selection of raw material is best indicated in the case of <italic>Abies alba</italic> (fir). Chronological analysis of the use of wood shows that the number of items made of timber from deciduous trees in all regions of Poland decreased in the late Middle Ages when compared to the Piast period of the early Middle Ages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]