Human footprints in urban forests: implication of nitrogen deposition for nitrogen and carbon storage.

Purpose: Rising levels of nitrogen (N) deposition are influencing urban forest carbon (C) and N dynamics due to greater human disturbance compared to those in rural areas. N deposition in combination with increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO) and water limitation may alter C and N storage in urban forests. This review aimed to provide a better understanding of N and C storage under N deposition scenarios in urban forests. Results and discussion: Globally, fuel combustion and biomass burning contribute in approximately 70 and 16 % of the NO emission respectively. It is also estimated that NH and NO are two to four times higher in urban forests compared to rural areas. However, higher N deposition may not always result in increased N and C storage in urban forests. In fact, urban forests may even show early symptoms of N and C losses under climate change. For example, urban forests in fire-prone areas require higher frequency of burning to reduce the threat of wildfires, leading to an acceleration of C and N loss. Additionally, chronic N deposition may result in an early N loss in urban forests due to faster N saturation and soil acidification in urban forests compared to rural forests. Studies of N deposition on urban forests using N isotope composition (δN) also showed that N loss from urban forests can occur through the direct leaching of the deposited NO-N. We also noted that using different N signal of soil and plant in combination of tree ring δN may provide a better understanding of N movement in urban forests. Conclusions: Although urban forests may become a source of C and N faster than rural forests, N-limited urban forests may benefit from N deposition to retain both N and C stocks longer than non-N-limited urban forests. Appropriate management practices may also help to delay such symptoms; however, the main source of emission still needs to be managed to reduce both N deposition and rising atmospheric CO in urban forests. Otherwise, the N and C stocks in urban forests may further decline when prolonged drought conditions under global climate change increase the frequency of fires and reduce plant photosynthesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]