An application-based taxonomy for brain-computer interfaces.

Competing Interests: Competing interests: J.T.R. is a shareholder, director and employee of Motif Neurotech, Inc. S.L.N. is a director and employee of Forest Neurotech. T.D. is founder and director of Amber Therapeutics, non-exec chairman of Mint Neurotechnologies Ltd. and advisor for Cortec Neuro. N.V. is a shareholder, director and employee of Neurosoft Bioelectronics S.A., a Swiss company building BCIs. M.M.S. is an inventor on patents or patent applications related to neural decoding and stimulation. R.M.F. is a shareholder, director and employee of Kernel. A.L.O. is a scientific advisor for Meta Reality Labs. S.A.S. is a shareholder of Motif Neurotech, and has consulting agreements with Neuropace, Boston Scientific, Zimmer Biomet and Koh Young. A.F. is a shareholder, director and employee of Cognixion Corporation. M.R.A. is a shareholder, director and employee of Paradromics, Inc. C.J.R. is an inventor on intellectual property related to neurotechnology, and a shareholder and member of the scientific advisory board of Motif Neurotech, Inc. S.D.S. is an inventor on patents or patent applications related to BCIs and is an advisor to Sonera. T.G.C. is a shareholder and director of Mint Neurotechnologies, Ltd. M.S. is an inventor on patents or patent applications related to neural decoding and stimulation. C.X. is an inventor on intellectual property related to neurotechnology, and a shareholder of Neuralthread, Inc. J.P.D. is a shareholder and board member of Pathmaker Neurosystems, and an advisor to Neurable and to Beacon Biosignals. All other authors declare no competing interests.