Plastid phylogenomics clarifies broad-level relationships in Bulbophyllum (Orchidaceae) and provides insights into range evolution of Australasian section Adelopetalum .

The hyperdiverse orchid genus Bulbophyllum is the second largest genus of flowering plants and exhibits a pantropical distribution with a center of diversity in tropical Asia. The only Bulbophyllum section with a center of diversity in Australasia is sect. Adelopetalum . However, the phylogenetic placement, interspecific relationships, and spatio-temporal evolution of this section remain largely unclear. To infer broad-level relationships within Bulbophyllum , and interspecific relationships within sect. Adelopetalum , a genome skimming dataset was generated for 89 samples, which yielded 70 plastid coding regions and a nuclear ribosomal DNA cistron. For 18 additional samples, Sanger data from two plastid loci ( mat K and ycf 1) and nuclear ITS were added using a supermatrix approach. The study provided new insights into broad-level relationships in Bulbophyllum , including phylogenetic evidence for the non-monophyly of sections Beccariana , Brachyantha , Brachypus , Cirrhopetaloides , Cirrhopetalum , Desmosanthes , Minutissima , Oxysepala , Polymeres , and Sestochilos . Section Adelopetalum and sect. Minutissima s.s. formed a highly supported clade that was resolved as a sister group to the remainder of the genus. Divergence time estimations based on a relaxed molecular clock model placed the origin of Bulbophyllum in the Early Oligocene (ca. 33.2 Ma) and sect. Adelopetalum in the Late Oligocene (ca. 23.6 Ma). Ancestral range estimations based on a BAYAREALIKE model identified the Australian continent as the ancestral area of the sect. Adelopetalum. The section underwent crown diversification from the mid-Miocene to the late Pleistocene, predominantly in continental Australia. At least two independent long-distance dispersal events were inferred eastward from the Australian continent to New Zealand and to New Caledonia from the early Pliocene onwards, likely mediated by predominantly westerly winds of the Southern hemisphere. Retraction and fragmentation of the eastern Australian rainforests from the early Miocene onwards are likely drivers of lineage divergence within sect. Adelopetalum facilitating allopatric speciation.
Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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