Adiposity, type 2 diabetes and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk: Use and abuse of the body mass index.

The worldwide prevalence of individuals with an elevated body weight has increased steadily over the past five decades. Billions of research dollars have been invested to improve our understanding of the causes and consequences of having an elevated body weight. All this knowledge has, however, failed to influence populational body weight trajectories of most countries around the world. Research on the definition of "obesity" has also evolved. Body mass index (BMI), the most commonly used tool to make its diagnosis, has major limitations. In this review article, we will highlight evidence from observational studies, genetic association studies and randomized clinical trials that have shown the remarkable inter-individual differences in the way humans store energy as body fat. Increasing evidence also suggests that, as opposed to weight inclusive, lifestyle-based approaches, weight-centric approaches advising people to simply eat less and move more are not sustainable for most people for long-term weight loss and maintenance. It is time to recognize that this outdated approach may have produced more harm than good. On the basis of pathophysiological, genetic and clinical evidence presented in this review, we propose that it may be time to shift away from the traditional clinical approach, which is BMI-centric. Rather, emphasis should be placed on actionable lifestyle-related risk factors aiming at improving overall diet quality and increasing physical activity level in the general population.
Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interests BJA is a consultant for Novartis, Eli Lilly, Editas Medicine and Silence Therapeutics and has received research contracts from Pfizer, Eli Lilly, Ionis Pharmaceuticals and Silence Therapeutics. ACC received research funding by Eli Lilly (2019 - ongoing) and NovoNordisk (2021 - ongoing) and consultation fees by Eli Lilly, HLS Therapeutics, Janssen Inc., Novartis Pharmaceuticals Canada Inc., and Novo Nordisk Canada Inc. PP received continuous medical education/consultation fees from Abbott, Amgen, Astrazeneca, Bayer, Bausch Health, Boehringer Ingelheim, Eli Lilly, GSK, HLS Therapeutics Inc, Janssen Inc, Novartis Pharmaceuticals Canada Inc, Mantra Pharma, Novo Nordisk Canada Inc, Sanofi, Servier. JPD discloses having received consulting fees from Inversago.
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