Black carbon particles in human breast milk: assessing infant's exposure.

Background/aim: Human breast milk is the recommended source of nutrition for infants due to its complex composition and numerous benefits, including a decline in infection rates in childhood and a lower risk of obesity. Hence, it is crucial that environmental pollutants in human breast milk are minimized. Exposure to black carbon (BC) particles has adverse effects on health; therefore, this pilot study investigates the presence of these particles in human breast milk.
Methods: BC particles from ambient exposure were measured in eight human breast milk samples using a white light generation under femtosecond illumination. The carbonaceous nature of the particles was confirmed with BC fingerprinting. Ambient air pollution exposures (PM _2.5 , PM ₁₀ , and NO ₂ ) were estimated using a spatial interpolation model based on the maternal residential address. Spearman rank correlation coefficients were obtained to assess the association between human breast milk's BC load and ambient air pollution exposure.
Results: BC particles were found in all human breast milk samples. BC loads in human breast milk were strongly and positively correlated with recent (i.e., 1 week) maternal residential NO ₂ ( r  = 0.79; p  = 0.02) exposure and medium-term (i.e., 1 month) PM _2.5 ( r  = 0.83; p  = 0.02) and PM ₁₀ ( r  = 0.93; p  = 0.002) exposure.
Conclusion: For the first time, we showed the presence of BC particles in human breast milk and found a robust association with ambient air pollution concentrations. Our findings present a pioneering insight into a novel pathway through which combustion-derived air pollution particles can permeate the delicate system of infants.
Competing Interests: MA and TN declare that aspects of the work are subject of a patent application (method for detecting or quantifying carbon black and/or black carbon particles, US20190025215A1) filed by Hasselt University (Hasselt, Belgium) and KU Leuven (Leuven, Belgium). The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.
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