Exposure to the insecticide, imidacloprid, impairs predator-recognition learning in damselfly larvae.

Many aquatic organisms use chemosensory information to learn about local predation threats, but contaminants in their environment may impair such cognitive processes. Neonicotinoids are a class of water-soluble systemic insecticides that have become a major concern in aquatic systems. In this study, we explored how a 10-day exposure to various concentrations (0, 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 μg/L) of the neonicotinoid imidacloprid affects the learned recognition of predator odour by non-target damselfly larvae (Lestes spp). Unexposed larvae and those exposed to the low concentration (0.1 μg/L) demonstrated an appropriate learned response to a novel predator odour following a conditioning with the odour paired with chemical alarm cues. However, such learning failed to occur for larvae that were exposed to imidacloprid concentrations of 1.0 and 10.0 μg/L. Thus, either the cognitive processing of the chemical information was impaired or the chemistry of one or both of the conditioning cues was altered, making them ineffective for learning. In a second experiment, we found evidence for this latter hypothesis. In the absence of background imidacloprid exposure, larvae did not show significant learned responses to the predator odour when the conditioning cues were mixed with imidacloprid (initial pulse solution of 3.0 μg/L) at the start of conditioning (reaching a final concentration of 0.01 μg/L). These findings indicate that even low levels of imidacloprid can have important implications for chemosensory cognition of non-target species in aquatic environments.
Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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