Non-target impacts of pesticides on soil N transformations, abundances of nitrifying and denitrifying genes, and nitrous oxide emissions.

Agriculture is the leading contributor to global nitrous oxide (N ₂ O) emissions, mostly from soils. We examined the non-target impacts of four pesticides on N transformations, N cycling genes and N ₂ O emissions from sugarcane-cropped soil. The pesticides, including a herbicide glyphosate (GLY), an insecticide imidacloprid (IMI), a fungicide methoxy ethyl mercuric chloride (MEMC) and a fumigant methyl isothiocyanate (MITC), were added to the soil and incubated in laboratory at 25 °C. The soil microcosms were maintained at two water contents, 55 % and 90 % water holding capacity (WHC), to simulate aerobic and partly anaerobic conditions, respectively. Half of the soil samples received an initial application of KNO ₃ and were then maintained at 90 % WHC for 38 d, whilst the other half received (NH ₄ ) ₂ SO ₄ and were maintained at 55 % WHC for 28 d followed by 10 d at 90 % WHC to favour denitrification. Responses of individual functional genes involved in nitrification and denitrification to the pesticides and their relationships to N ₂ O emissions varied with time and soil water. Overall, MITC had pronounced repressive effects on AOA and AOB amoA gene abundances and gross nitrification. Under 55 % WHC during the initial 28 d, N ₂ O emissions were low for all treatments (≤62 μg N kg ^-1 soil). However, under 90 % WHC (either during the first 28 d or the increase in water content from 55 to 90 % WHC after 28 d) the cumulative N ₂ O emissions increased markedly. Overall, under 90 % WHC the cumulative N ₂ O emissions were 19 (control) to 79-fold (MITC) higher than under 55% WHC; with the highest emissions observed in the MITC treatment (3140 μg N kg ^-1 soil). This was associated with increases in gross nitrate consumption rates and abundances of denitrifying genes (nirK, nirS and qnorB). Therefore, to minimise N ₂ O emissions, MITC should not be applied to field under wet conditions favouring denitrification.
Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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