Characterizing the Two-photon Absorption Properties of Fluorescent Molecules in the 680-1300 nm Spectral Range.

Two-photon laser scanning microscopy (2PLSM) is a state-of-the-art technique used for non-invasive imaging deep inside the tissue, with high 3D resolution, minimal out-of-focus photodamage, and minimal autofluorescence background. For optimal application of fluorescent probes in 2PLSM, their two-photon absorption (2PA) spectra, expressed in absolute cross sections must be characterized. Excitation at optimum wavelength will make it possible to reduce the laser power and therefore minimize photodamage. Obtaining 2PA spectra and cross sections requires correcting the two-photon excited fluorescence signals for a combination of laser properties, including the beam spatial profile, pulse duration, and absolute power, at each wavelength of the tuning range. To avoid such tedious day-to-day laser characterization required in the absolute measurement method, a relative method based on independently characterized 2PA reference standards is often used. By carefully analyzing the available literature data, we selected the most reliable standards for both the 2PA spectral shape and cross section measurements. Here we describe a protocol for measuring the 2PA spectral shapes and cross sections of fluorescent proteins and other fluorophores with the relative fluorescence method using these reference standards. Our protocol first describes how to build an optical system and then how to perform the measurements. In our protocol, we use Coumarin 540A in dimethyl sulfoxide and LDS 798 in chloroform for the spectral shape measurements to cover the range from 680 to 1300 nm, and Rhodamine 590 in methanol and Fluorescein in alkaline water (pH 11) for the absolute two-photon cross section measurements.
Competing Interests: Competing interests The authors declare no financial and non-financial competing interests.