Impact of anthropogenic activities on the occurrence and distribution of toxic metals, extending-spectra β-lactamases and carbapenem resistance in sub-Saharan African urban rivers.

The occurrence and dissemination of toxic metals, antibiotic resistant bacteria and their resistance genes (ARGs) in the aquatic ecosystems of sub-Saharan African countries are still understudied, despite their potential to threat human health and aquatic organisms. In this context, the co-contamination and seasonal distribution of toxic metals and ARG in river sediments receiving untreated urban sewages and hospital effluents from Kinshasa, the capital city of the Democratic Republic of the Congo were investigated. ARGs including β-lactam resistance (bla _CTX-M and bla _SHV ), carbapenem resistance (bla _VIM , bla _IMP , bla _KPC , bla _OXA-48 and bla _NDM ) and total bacterial load were quantified by using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) in total DNA extracted from sediment. The amount of toxic metals in sediments was quantified using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). The results highlight high abundance of 16S rRNA and ARGs copy numbers in sediment samples. Strong pollution of rivers by toxic metals was found, with max values (mg kg ^-1 ) of 81.85(Cr), 5.09(Co), 33.84(Ni), 203.46 (Cu), 1055.92(Zn), 324.24(Pb) and 2.96(Hg). Results also highlight the high abundance of bacterial markers (8.06 × 10 ⁹ -2.42 × 10 ¹² 16S rRNA/g ^-1 DS) as well as antibiotic resistance genes (up to 4.58 × 10 ⁸ ARG. g ^-1 DS) in the studied rivers. Significant correlations were observed between (i) metals (except Cd and Hg) and organic matter (R > 0.60, p < 0.05); and (ii) ARGs (except bla _NDM ) and 16S rRNA (R > 0.57, p < 0.05) suggesting a tight link between (i) metal contamination and anthropogenic pressure and (ii) microbial contamination of river and dissemination of antibiotic resistance. Results demonstrated that multi-diffuse pollution originating from human activity contribute to the spread of toxic metals and ARGs into the aquatic ecosystems.
Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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