Co-adaptation mechanisms in plant-nematode systems.

The review is aimed to analyze the biochemical and immune-breaking adaptive mechanisms established in evolution of plant parasitic nematodes. Plant parasitic nematodes are obligate, biotrophic pathogens of numerous plant species. These organisms cause dramatic changes in the morphology and physiology of their hosts. The group of sedentary nematodes which are among the most damaging plant-parasitic nematodes cause the formation of special organs called nematode feeding sites in the root tissue called syncytium (cyst nematodes, CN; Heterodera and Globodera spp.) or giant cells (root-knot nematodes, RKN; Meloidogyne spp.). The most pronounced morphological adaptations of nematodes for plant parasitism include a hollow, protrusible stylet (feeding spear) connected to three esophageal gland cells that express products secreted into plant tissues through the stylet. Several gene products secreted by the nematode during parasitism have been identified. The current battery of candidate parasitism proteins secreted by nematodes to modify plant tissues for parasitism includes cell-wall-modifying enzymes, multiple regulators of host cell cycle and metabolism, proteins that can localize near the plant cell nucleus, potential suppressors of host defense, and mimics of plant molecules. Plants are usually able to recognize and react to parasites by activating various defense responses. When the response of the plant is too weak or too late, a successful infection (compatible interaction) will result. A rapid and strong defense response (e. g. due to the presence of a resistance gene) will result in the resistant (incompatible) reaction. Defense responses include the production of toxic oxygen radicals and systemic signaling compounds as well as the activation of defense genes that lead to the production of structural barriers or other toxins.