The use of a multi-method approach to identify the pigments in the 12th century manuscript Liber Floridus

Abstract: A selection of illuminations of the 12th century manuscript Liber Floridus was analysed with Raman spectroscopy (in situ and laboratory measurements), X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, UV-fluorescence photography and infrared reflectography (IRR). The aim of this study is to determine the pigments used, in order to search for anachronisms. Using a combination of Raman spectroscopy (molecular information) and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (elemental information) following pigments could be identified: ultramarine (Na8–10Al6Si6O24S2–4), azurite (2CuCO3·Cu(OH)2), caput mortuum (Fe2O3), vermilion (HgS), orpiment (As2S3) and lead white (2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2). Moreover, two synthetic red pigments, PR4 and PR176, and a degradation product, gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O), were present in the manuscript. To establish the origin of the modern materials UV-fluorescence photography was used. Infrared reflectography (IRR) was applied to visualise the underdrawing of the investigated folios. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]