Exploring the astrobiological potential of rock varnish from a mars analogue field site of Ladakh, India.

Rock varnish, a dark-coloured natural feature rich in manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), and clay minerals that forms on rock surfaces and subsurface rock fractures in extremely dry and cold environments, is believed to provide nutritional support to microbiota. Because varnish supports an extensive microbial community, this rock coating is considered a substrate for potential microbial life to thrive in extreme environments on Earth. Although research in the past decades have advanced understanding of the varnish microbiome, little is known about this microbial community in settings that are high altitude (lower oxygen), dry, and cold. We present here new morphological, chemical, and rock magnetic results of rock varnish from this environmental setting, the Ladakh, a potential analogue site for life in extreme environments. Our results include the presence of putative magnetofossils-in the form of nanochains present in the rock varnish layer. Further, the higher concentrations of oxidised Mn4+ and carboxylic acid functionality on the varnish surface revealed organic signatures. These collective results point towards the enriched concentration of magnetic minerals on the varnish layer that are possibly sourced through biotic forms. Consequently, the rock varnish can serve as an archive of ancient environmental records, as well as a potential geomaterial for astrobiological studies from the Martian analogue field location of Ladakh, which needs to be explored further for extensive biogeochemical studies. • Ladakh's rock varnish as a potential geomaterial for Mars analogue studies in extreme settings. • Presence of putative magnetofossil-like entities in the varnish layer reported for the first time. • Higher levels of oxidized Mn4+ and carboxylic acids on the varnish surface revealed organic signatures through XPS analysis. • Comprehensive magnetic characterisation of rock varnish unveils magnetite as the dominant magnetic mineral. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]