Ethnopharmacology, ethnomedicine, and wildlife conservation.

There are longstanding traditions of animal-derived products being employed as medicines, and they continue to be important in many traditional cultural healthcare practices. However, the populations of numerous so-used animals are known to be threatened with extirpation by such practices. Ethnopharmacological studies documenting these animal-derived drugs are not only interesting from an anthropological standpoint, but they are also relevant from a wildlife conservation perspective – especially since ethnopharmacologists are intermediaries between indigenous and scientific communities, placing them at the forefront of being able to ethically access information to address these issues. Using the example of documenting culturally acceptable substitute materials for animal products (which ultimately also extends to flora), we explore the intersection of ethnopharmacology, biocultural resources, and wildlife conservation. Pharmacological efficacy and symbolism are factors influencing the utilization of traditional medicines. Achieving the integration of conservation aims with ethnopharmacology requires a nuanced understanding of both factors, along with fair adjudication when conservation and cultural aims diverge. Ethnopharmacology is suitably placed for making conservation-orientated recommendations – including investigating more sustainable substitutes for animal products in the context of medical efficacy, and for engaging ethically with local communities to facilitate information generation aimed at protecting the environment and their traditions. We suggest an integrative approach to ethnopharmacological studies investigating medicinal bioresource use. This approach is considerate of species' conservation profiles, the substitutability and pharmacological efficacy of biocultural resources, indigenous and cultural rights, and a collaborative ethos for stakeholder engagement. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]