Advancements in tissue and organ 3D bioprinting: Current techniques, applications, and future perspectives.

[Display omitted] • The state-of-the-art of 3D bioprinting is comprehensively reviewed with emphasis on design and processing aspects. • Major applications in the biomedical area, including the repair of bone, soft tissues and organs, are considered. • The current limitations and the latest evolutions of bioprinting-based strategies are examined. • Existing results and new horizons are discussed to provide a picture being useful to both senior and early-stage researchers. 3D bioprinting techniques have emerged as a flexible tool in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine to fabricate or pattern functional 3D bio-structures with precise geometric designs, bridging the divergence between engineered and natural tissue constructs. A significantly increasing development has been achieved in understanding the relationship between the 3D-printing process and the structures, properties, and applications of the objects created. The ongoing advancement of novel biomaterial inks has enabled manufacturing of models and in vitro implants capable of achieving some level of success in preclinical trials. Remarkable progress in cell biology and biology-inspired computational design has assisted in achieving the latest milestone with planned tissue- or organ-like constructs having specific levels of functionality. However, biofabricated constructs still have a long way to go before reaching clinics. This review presents a picture of 3D bioprinting in the context of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, with focus on biomaterials-related and design-centred aspects. Biomedical applications are described in detail in relation to major tissues or organs considered in the human body. Current technical limitations, challenges, future prospects and improvements are critically outlined and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]