Responses of deep soil moisture to direct rainfall and groundwater in the red soil critical zone: A four-stage pattern.

• Rainfall classification aided the understanding of deep soil moisture (DSM) recharge. • Groundwater overwhelmed the role of direct rainfall in recharging DSM. • A four-stage relationship between DSM and groundwater table was identified. • A conceptual model for DSM recharge was proposed. Deep soil moisture (DSM) plays a critical role in vadose zone hydrological processes. However, the recharge processes and their underlying mechanisms remain unclear due to the scarcity of comprehensive deep hydrological data, especially in regions characterized by active interactions between surface and subsurface hydrological processes. To address this knowledge gap, we performed an event-based study using a four-year hydrological monitoring dataset, encompassing rainfall, profile soil moisture, and groundwater along a hillslope at the Red Soil Critical Zone Observatory (CZO) in China. A total of 226 rainfall events were classified into four distinct types (I-IV) using a k -means clustering algorithm. The changes in DSM and groundwater table (GWT) were dependent on the rainfall type. The GWT (0.57–0.97) played a greater role in contributing to the DSM than the direct rainfall (0.48–0.64) based on a structural equation model, which was more pronounced from upper slope to foot slope. DSM recharge pattern can be described by a four-stage conceptual model, as indicated by the relationship between DSM and GWT: a slow and linear increase (stage 1), a small plateau (stage 2), a rapid linear rise (stage 3), and finally a great plateau (stage 4). DSM at the small and great plateau were closely related with the field capacity and saturation, respectively. Rainfall type, vadose zone features, and soil physical properties jointly shaped DSM recharge patterns. These findings can offer valuable insights into understanding the deep hydrological processes of the red soil region as well as regions with similar hydroclimatic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]